Work so far.

Bicep curl –

·       With the bicep curl, the concentric (work) phase occurs when the dumbbell is raised towards the shoulders, and the eccentric phase is when the dumbbell is lowered back down.

·       For the biceps curl, the concentric (up) phase occurs when the dumbbell is lifted towards the shoulder.

·       For the biceps curl, the muscle that causes elbow flexion is the biceps. Please note that these same muscles are worked for both the concentric and eccentric phases – they get shorter during the concentric phase and longer during the eccentric phase.

·       For the biceps curl, the antagonist of the biceps is the triceps.

Squat –

·       the concentric phase occurs when you raise yourself from the squat position (i.e. stand up) because you are pushing your body weight upwards against gravity; and working eccentrically when you lower yourself into the squat position (with gravity). The same muscles are working for both phases – they shorten on the way up (concentric) and lengthen on the way down (eccentric).

·       the hip and knee joints that move

·       the concentric (up) phase occurs when you stand up straight. Knee extension and hip extension therefore occur.

·       For the squat, the muscle that causes knee extension is the quadriceps, and the muscles that cause hip extension are the gluteus maximus and the hamstrings.

Abdominal curl –

·       the concentric phase is when you lift the shoulders off the floor against gravity.

·       The joint moving is the spine, the movement is flexion.

·       The rectus abdominis causes spine flexion, hence that is the prime mover.

·       The antagonist is found on the other side of the body and is the erector spinae. The eccentric phase occurs when you lower the shoulders back down to the floor (you are still working the abs however).

Football kick –

·       The action in kicking is one that takes place in a sagittal plane about a frontal axis and involves the hip, knee and ankle joints.

·       The bones of the hip involved are the femur and pelvic girdle which form a ball and socket joint.

·       The bones of the knee involved are the femur and tibia which form a hinge joint.

·       The bones of the ankle involved are the tibia and calcaneus which form a modified joint.

·       Kicking comprises of two phases, the preparatory phase and the kicking phase.

Preparatory Phase

Joints involved	Action	Agonist Muscle
Hip	Extension & hyperextension	Gluteal muscles (gluteus maximus and gluteus minimus)
Knee	Flexion	Hamstrings (biceps femoris, semimembranosus, semitendinosus)
Ankle	Plantar flexion	Gastrocnemius

Kicking phase

Joints involved	Action	Agonist Muscle
Hip	Flexion	Iliopsoas
Knee	Extension	Quadriceps group of muscles (rectus femoris, vastus medialis, vastus lateralis and vastus intermedialis)
Ankle	Plantar flexion	Gastrocnemius

Agonist, Antagonist, Fixator & Synergist Muscles

Question often asked relate to which are the Agonist, Antagonist, Fixator & Synergist Muscles. When kicking the ball then:

·       Agonist - Quadricep muscles

·       Antagonist - Hamstring muscles

·       Fixator - Gluteus Maximus

·       Synergist - Abdominal muscles

Javelin throw –

·       Throwing comprises of two phases, the preparatory phase and the throwing phase. ·       Most actions are rotational in the transverse plane and longitudinal axis and the two joints primarily involved are the elbow and shoulder. ·       The elbow is a hinge joint formed by the humerus and ulna. ·       The shoulder is a ball and socket joint formed between the humerus and the scapula.

Preparatory phase

Joints involved	Articulating bones	Action	Agonist Muscle
Shoulder	Humerus & scapula	Horizontal hyperextension	Posterior deltoids and latissimus dorsi
Elbow	Humerus & ulna	Extension	Triceps brachii

Throwing phase

Joints involved	Articulating bones	Action	Agonist Muscle
Shoulder	Humerus & scapula	Horizontal flexion	Anterior deltoids and Pectoralis major
Elbow	Humerus & ulna	Flexion	Biceps brachii

Muscles in relation to exercise.

·       Agonist – describes the muscles or muscles responsible for movement. The contracting muscles.

·       Antagonist – describe the muscles or muscles responsible for relaxing during movement.

·       Fixator – describes the muscle or muscles that help stabilise a joint or series joints.

·       Antagonistic pair – a pair of muscles that work together to achieve a movement

 Shoulder –

·       Is a ball and socket joint

·       Movements possible are

o   Flexion à anterior deltoid

o   Extension à posterior deltoid

o   Abduction à deltoid

o   Adduction à latissimus dorsi

o   Horizontal flexion à pectoralis major

o   Medial rotation à trapezius

o   Lateral rotation à Teres major

Radioulnar –

·       Possible movements are:

o   Pronation à pronator teres (palm down)

o   Supination à supinator muscles (palm up)

Elbow –

·       Is a hinge joint:

·       Possible movements are:

o   Flexion à biceps branchii

o   Extension à triceps branchii

Wrist (condyloid)  –

·       Movements possible are:

o   Flexion à wrist flexors

o   Extension à wrist extensors

Vertebral –

·       Possible movements are:

o   Flexion à rectus abdominus

o   Extension à erector spinae

o   Lateral flexion à internal and external obliques

Hip –

·       Possible movements are:

o   Flexion à iliopsoas

o   Extension, abduction à gluteus maximus, medius, minimus

o   Adduction à adductor longus, brevis, magnus

Knee –

·       Possible movements:

o   Flexion à rectus femoris, vastus medialis, intermedius, lateralis

o   Extension à biceps femoris, semimembranosus, semitendinosus

Ankle –

·       Possible movements:

o   Dorsiflexion à tibialis amterior

o   Plantar flexion à gastrocnemius and soleus

Key words –

·       Hypertrophy – an increase in muscle size

·       Hyperplasia – muscles fibres split to increase their number

·       Contraction time – speed at which muscles fibres contracts

·       Motor neuron – amount of fibres attached to a single nerve, the more fibres the greater the contraction

·       Resistance fatigue – how quickly fibres get tired

·       Force production – how hard the fibres contract

·       Mitochondria – provides energy to muscles fibres using oxygen

·       Capillary density – provides opportunity for oxygen to diffuse into muscles

·       Oxidative capacity – indicates the muscles ability to use oxygen

·       Glycolytic capacity – capacity to use glycogen

·       Major fuel – this could be triglycerides, glycogen or creatine phosphate.

Muscles fibre types –

·       Type 1 – slow oxidative twitch fibres

o   These fibres contract slowly and produce energy over a long period of time. These fibres use aerobic energy to power their movements – most important for a marathon runner

·       Type 2a – fast oxidative glycolytic twitch fibres

o   These fibres contract very quickly but have some traits of type 1 fibres. They have some endurance but do not last as long as the type 1 fibres.

·       Type 2b – fast glycolytic twitch fibres

o   These fibres contract very quickly and produce very powerful movements. They have very little endurance, therefore are specialised to power based events.

Netball centre –

·       Will have mostly type 2b fibres which are fast glycolytic as they will be doing a majority of the running in the game. They control the speed of the game and will be on the ball and are moving a lot more than a wing would for example. – 70%

·       But they will have some Type 2a as they will need to make short sharp sprints where, as the ball move faster to than the player meaning that they will have to sprint in order to catch up with the rest of the play – 30%

Javelin thrower –

·       Muscle fibres that they need to achieve the best results they require a very high percentage of fast twitch muscle fibres in comparison to slow twitch muscle fibres (around 60/70% fast twitch and 40/30% slow twitch). Of which of that 60/70% they want as many FTG (fast twitch glycolytic) muscle fibres as possible because their event is purely anaerobic so unlike FOG (fat oxidative glycolytic) muscle fibres which combine both of the two types, FOG's can work almost as well anaerobically as FTG muscle fibres but they lose some power and strength because they have a slightly small muscle diameter thus meaning they are not as strong.

100m runner –

·       Will have Type 2a – fast oxidative glycolytic twitch fibres that contract very quickly so that they can get an explosive start

·       Then mostly Type 2b - fast glycolytic twitch fibres that contract very quickly and produce very powerful movements. Very similar to type 2a, however they will last for the 9/10 seconds after the start

5000m runner –

Short term positive effects –

·       Increased blood flow to the muscles

o   At rest flow is about 5% of total available

o   During exercise this can rise to 90%

·       The benefit is that are muscles will be warm during exercise

·       Physical activity in short term can increase your alertness as hormones are released. These make you feel relaxed post exercise.

Short term negatives effects –

·       Muscle soreness

·       Fatigue

·       Energy stores and myoglobin levels will be depleted

Long term effects –

·       Increased muscle thickness of each muscle fibre, improving strength and contractile speed.

o   Hypertrophy

·       Increased number of muscle fibres, increased strength of contraction and size of motor neuron.

o   Hyperplasia

·       Increased availability of fuel source

·       Within our slow twitch fibres the capillary beds become more efficient, increasing mitochondrial density.

Long term negative effects –

·       Without rest periods, overuse injuries can occur.

o   Cant train, perform or improve

·       Possible injuries such as fasciitis (inflammation of the sheath around a muscle) can occur, particular in the tibialis anterior muscle 

Skeletal System

Axial Skeletal - skeleton that consists of the bones of the head and trunk of a vertebrate (ribs and sternum). Protects vital organs – heart, lungs.

Appendicular Skeleton – upper and lower, arms + legs. Function = movement.

Vertebral column – 26 bones, split into 5 reigns. Cervical, thoracic, and lumbar.

Pelvis contents vertebral column to femur – 3 regions to interconnecting bones, provides connection for reproductive organs and a strong base for walking.

Axial Skeletal	Appendicular Skeleton upper	Appendicular Skeleton lower
·       Sternum ·       Ribs ·       Vertebrae ·       Sacrum ·       Coccyx ·       Facial ·       Cranial ·       auditory ossicles ·       Hyoid	·       Pectoral girdles ·       Left and right clavicle + scapula (shoulder blades) ·       Arms and forearms ·       Left and right humerus ·       ulna + radius (forearm). ·       Metacarpals ·       Phalanges	·       Femur ·       Tibia ·       Fibular ·       Pelvis – Ilium – ischium – pubis ·       Talus (heal bone) ·       Tarsals – metatarsals (big small bones in toes) ·       Phalanges

Functions of the skeleton:

·       Shape, bones define our shape.

·       Support, provides support to our vital organs

·       Protection of our vital organs

·       Movement, bones provide attachment points for muscles.

·       Blood cells production, bones are lightweight and are not solid inside – bone marrow that creates white and red blood cells.

·       Mineral storage, provide a place for the storage of calcium and phosphorous.

Classifications of joints:

·       Fixed or fused joints –

o   They allow no movement but are key in allowing us to grow and develop, e.g. cranium.

·       Slightly moveable or cartilaginous joints –

o   Joints that join bones together with cartilage only, allow some movement and usually in a number of directions. E.g. vertebrae of the spine.

·       Freely moveable or synovial joints –

o   A much greater range of movement. These joints are subdivided further depending on the type of movement it allows.

§  Hinge joint

·       Moves in one plane of motion

§  Ball and socket

·       Allow movement in four places

§  Pivot joint

·       One plane of motion, bones move together as a pin in a groove.

§  Condyloid joint

·       Allows movement in three planes and has the appearance of a pestle and mortar

§  Saddle joint

·       Are strong and allow movement across three planes. They have the general appearance of two out together.

Freely moveable joints –

·       Freely moveable joints are also known as synovial joints

·       They are freely moving and occur where 2 or more bones meet

·       There are about 70 freely moveable joints in the human skeleton

They have to following characteristics:

1.     Cartilage – A material which covers the end of each bone, and which helps prevent friction between joints

2.     Joint capsule – The outer covering of the joint that holds the bones together and protects the joint

3.     Synovial membrane – The inner lining of the joint capsule which also produces synovial fluid

4.     Synovial fluid – the fluid which surrounds the joint and acts like an ‘oil’, lubricating it to allow easy movement

5.     Ligaments – these are elastic straps which join bone to bone, holding the joint together.

Term	Meaning
Anterior	To the front or in front
Posterior	Tot the rear or behind
Medial	Towards the midline
Lateral	Away from the midline
Proximal	Near to the root or origin
Distal	Away from the root or origin
Superior	Above
Inferior	Below

Movement Analysis

Short term effects on the skeletal system –

·       Increased production of synovial fluid

·       Injury

Long term effects on the skeletal system –

·       Osteoporosis – weight baring exercises

·       Increased strength of bones, through improvement in bone density

·       Increased strength of ligaments



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